Silver nanoparticles: From green synthesis to antibacterial mechanisms, healthcare applications and toxicological considerations

Naser, Kawther Mohammad and Hamood, Khansaa Khairi and Talak, Atheer Obaid (2025) Silver nanoparticles: From green synthesis to antibacterial mechanisms, healthcare applications and toxicological considerations. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 32 (1). pp. 183-195. ISSN 2581-3250

With the alarming rise in multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, the search for new antimicrobial agents has become critical. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have emerged as a highly promising contender, owing to their unique physiochemical properties, particularly their high surface-to-volume ratio and distinctive crystalline structure. This article delves into the comprehensive landscape of AgNPs, highlighting advancements from their environmentally conscious synthesis to their multifaceted mechanisms of action and diverse healthcare applications. A significant shift in AgNP production favors green synthesis methods, utilizing biological resources like plant and microbial extracts, notably Actinomycetes. This sustainable approach addresses the environmental concerns associated with traditional chemical and physical synthesis, paving the way for safer and more economically viable production routes. The antibacterial prowess of AgNPs stems from several key mechanisms: they physically disrupt bacterial cell membranes, leading to permeability changes and leakage; they interact intracellularly with sulfur and phosphorus-containing biomolecules like DNA and proteins, disrupting vital cellular processes; and they generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), inducing oxidative stress. Crucially, the release of silver ions from the nanoparticles further amplifies these cytotoxic effects, with optimal bactericidal activity observed in nanoparticles typically ranging from 1-10 nm. Beyond their direct antimicrobial capabilities, AgNPs find varied applications in healthcare. They are being integrated into existing restorative materials to enhance antibacterial properties, and are explored for use in medical devices such as surgical masks and catheters, offering sustained antimicrobial protection. However, the article also thoughtfully addresses the critical aspect of toxicology. While AgNPs demonstrate dose-dependent cytotoxicity to mammalian cells in vitro, their impact is significantly influenced by factors like particle size, surface chemistry, and the capping agents used during synthesis. Future research must continue to refine synthesis parameters and explore in vivo models more extensively to fully understand their long-term safety profile and ensure their responsible and effective deployment in clinical settings. Ultimately, AgNPs represent a vital component in our collective strategy to overcome the challenges posed by antimicrobial resistance.